MODULE DESCRIPTION APPLIED HYDROGEN SAFETY
| MODULE TITLE: | Applied Hydrogen Safety | |
| MODULE CODE: | ENE822J2X | |
| YEAR OF REVISION: | 2008/09 | |
| MODULE LEVEL: | 7 | |
| CREDIT POINTS: | 30 | |
| MODULE STATUS: | Compulsory | |
| SEMESTER: | 2 | |
| LOCATION: | Campus One | |
| E-LEARNING: | Fully on-line | |
| PREREQUISITE(S): | Principles of Hydrogen Safety (ENE821J1X) | |
| CO-REQUISITE(S): | None | |
| MODULE CO-ORDINATOR: | Dr Dahoe, A.E. | |
| TEACHING STAFF: | Dr Dahoe, A.E.; Dr Makarov, D.V. | |
| HOURS: | On-line learning (on-line lectures, on-line discussions by forum and email) | 72 hrs |
| Directed reading (including consultation of electronic library resources) | 108 hrs | |
| Independent study time (including coursework assignment preparation and on-line quizzes at the end of each lecture) | 120 hrs | |
| TOTAL EFFORT HOURS: | 300 hrs | |
| ACADEMIC SUBJECT: | ENE | |
| RATIONALE This module seeks to develop in students the ability to apply the Principles of Hydrogen Safety for the provision of hydrogen safety in application areas involving the production, storage, transportation, and utilisation of hydrogen while taking the regulatory framework and standards into account. |
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AIMS
| · | Provide the student with a systematic understanding of the regulatory framework, including directives, standards and codes, a critical awareness of current problems and/or new insights in application areas of the hydrogen economy. | |
| · | Provide the student with the ability to apply to theories, methodologies and paradigms to real world safety problems. | |
| · | Develop in the student a capability for independent learning to expand his/her knowledge from information available from the practical application and provision of hydrogen safety. | |
| · | Enable the student to critically evaluate and use research information to create innovative solutions to hydrogen safety problems in practical situations. | |
| · | Develop in the student the quality of developing creative solutions to hydrogen safety problems as they occur in application areas of the hydrogen economy. | |
| · | Develop in the student the ability to deal with complex hydrogen safety issues in various application areas in the hydrogen economy while taking the regulatory framework into account. |
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Successful students will be able to:
KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING
| K1 | explain the regulatory framework and distinguish between the mandatory and voluntary nature of its constituents | |
| K2 | point out the peculiarities of accidental hydrogen releases and explain why they may occur depending on the operating conditions | |
| K3 | point out the various ignition sources and explain how they must be handled/avoided for the provision of hydrogen safety | |
| K4 | explain the features of blast waves and blast loadings caused by explosions | |
| K5 | distinguish between different types of hydrogen embrittlement |
INTELLECTUAL QUALITIES
| I1 | assess when a particular standard is in accordance with the New Approach Directives | |
| I2 | evaluate requirements for safety taking hydrogen release mechanisms, ignition/flammability properties, ignition mechanisms, and potential ignition sources into consideration | |
| I3 | calculate flammable regions caused by jet releases and cryogenic hydrogen spills | |
| I4 | evaluate methods to predict pressure effects from hydrogen explosions | |
| I4 | predict pressure effects from bursting spheres and pressure vessel failure for flash-evaporating liquids |
PROFESSIONAL/PRACTICAL SKILLS
| P1 | apply the risk control strategy stipulated by the ATEX User Directive | |
| P2 | explain how ATEX Directives address the safety of hydrogen technologies (e.g. identification of minimum safety standards for equipment intended for use in potentially flammable atmospheres and the duties of employers to ensure the safety of workers and others at risk from explosive atmospheres; the requirement imposed on EU Member states to embrace ATEX and to implement the Directives’ provisions, as a minimum, through their own domestic legislation) | |
| P3 | demonstrate expertise in designing mitigatiory measures for accidental hydrogen explosions | |
| P4 | integrate knowledge of blast waves, structural response and resistance of structures and equipment, and, calculations of the throw of debris and missiles with damage criteria for buildings, vehicles and people for the provision of safety | |
| P5 | apply the various steps comprising risk assessment for the provision of hydrogen safety |
TRANSFERABLE SKILLS
| T1 | assess the meaning and scope of regulations, codes, and standards in practical situations to peers and engage in critical dialogue | |
| T2 | continue to advance their knowledge and understanding of the regulatory framework as the hydrogen economy evolves | |
| T3 | demonstrate expertise in solving complex hydrogen safety problems while taking the regulatory framework into account, act autonomously in planning and implementing tasks at a professional or equivalent level while demonstrating self-direction and originality | |
| T4 | display mastery in evaluating designs, make sound judgements in the absence of complete data in practical situations, and communicate their conclusions to specialist and non-specialist audiences |
CONTENT
Hydrogen Safety and the Regulatory Framework
Hydrogen safety and regulatory issues. Public acceptance and safety. Safety legislation: hierarchy in safety legislation; purpose of safety legislation (imposing duties, responsibilities and accountabilities on people and organisations); the meaning of codes, standards, guidance and regulations; the origin of codes (developed by industry or trade bodies), standards (developed by engineering or standard bodies), and regulations (issued by the State); the Approved Code of Practice. A detailed examination of the structured approach to safety demanded by the ATEX Directives (substitution, preventing the formation of explosive atmospheres, containment, dilution through effective ventilation, preventing the ignition of explosive atmospheres, zone classification, mitigating the effects of an explosion, use of explosion resistant equipment, explosion relief, explosion suppression, prevention of explosion propagation, organisational measures to ensure explosion protection).
Handling Hydrogen Releases
Peculiarities of handling different types of releases: permeability, leaks and subsonic releases, high-momentum releases, cryogenic hydrogen spills, 'explosive' evaporation, catastrophic failures, boil off. Hydrogen detection and hydrogen sensors. Hydrogen removal: ventilation, thermal recombiners, passive autocatalytic recombiners. Preventive ignition of unscheduled releases: glow plug igniters, spark igniters, catalytic igniters.
Prevention of Hydrogen Ignition
Overview of hydrogen ignition mechanisms and relevant preventing techniques: electrical circuits, static electricity, hot surface, open fire, shock waves, (hot) gas jet, explosives, exothermic reaction, pyrophoric substances, lightning, etc. Autoignition and safety in hydrogen powered vehicles. Standard IEC 60079-10 'Electrical apparatus for explosive gas atmospheres - Part 10: Classification of hazardous areas'.
Pressure Effects of Hydrogen Explosions
Blast wave properties: ideal blast wave structure, the use of the Sachs variables, atmospheric and ground effects. Prediction of blast effects from hydrogen explosions: overpressures generated by unconfined hydrogen deflagrations with different velocities and acceleration of flame front propagation in open atmosphere. Blast parameters from unconfined gaseous detonations. Blast effects of confined and unconfined explosions. Experimental results on hydrogen explosion pressures above 'standard' detonation pressure. Shortcomings of the TNT-equivalence concept for the estimation of pressure effects of gaseous explosions. Multi-energy method for the estimation of pressure effects of gaseous explosions. Blast effects from bursting spheres. Physical explosions. Pressure vessel failure for flash-evaporating liquids. Evaluation of safety distances related to unconfined hydrogen explosions. Venting of deflagration: multi-peak structure of pressure transients and underlying physical phenomena, turbulence generated by venting process, coherent deflagrations in a system enclosure-atmosphere and the role of external explosions, the Le Chatelier-Brown principle analogue for vented deflagrations, onset of detonation during the venting of hydrogen-air mixtures. Correlations for calculation of venting area for hydrogen-air explosions in enclosures.
Structural Response, Fragmentation and Missile Effects
Structural response to explosion loadings: amplification factors for sinusoidal and blast loadings, P-I diagrams for ideal blast sources and non-ideal explosions, energy solutions, dimensionless P-I diagrams. Structural response times for plates. Damage criteria for buildings, vehicles and people. Fragmentation and missile effects: primary and secondary fragments; drag-type and lifting-type fragments; impact effects; trajectories and impact conditions.
Compatibility of Metallic Materials with Hydrogen
An overview of reported accidents and incidents caused by hydrogen embrittlement. Internal and external hydrogen embrittlement. States of hydrogen in steels: hydrogen in metallic solution, hydrogen in combined state. Gaseous hydrogen embrittlement: steel deterioration due to hydrogen in metallic solution, mechanism due to transport by dislocations, effect of temperature. Hydrogen attack: steel deterioration due to hydrogen in combined state, mechanism of formation of micro-cavities in the steel, effect of diffusional transport, effect of temperature. Influence of hydrogen pressure on crack growth rate. Test methods to investigate hydrogen embrittlement and hydrogen attack. Factors affecting hydrogen embrittlement: hydrogen purity, hydrogen partial pressure, temperature, exposure time, surface condition, nature of the material (critical concentration of hydrogen in the material, microstructure, chemical composition, mechanical properties). Mitigation of hydrogen embrittlement by the addition of vanadium and rare earth elements to ferritic steel, or, Ni, C, and Mn to austenitic stainless steels. Hydrogen embrittlement of other materials: brass and copper alloys, aluminum and aluminum alloys, Cu-Be (used in springs and membranes), Ni and high Ni alloys, Ti and Ti alloys. Mitigation of hydrogen attack: chemical composition (addition of Cr, Mo, Ti, W), heat treatment (stress relief treatment), level of stress (elimination of residual stresses by heat treatment).
Risk Assessment Methodologies
Terms and definitions: hazard, danger, accident, risk, risk analysis, risk assessment, etc. Origins and a brief history of risk analysis and loss prevention. Basic factors determining hazard and risk of substances. Hazard identification and analysis methods. Hazard ranking methods, the Dow Fire and Explosion Index. Hazard and operability studies (HAZOP). Consequence analysis. Dispersion and transmission models: the structure of the atmosphere and its relation to transmission and plume behaviour. Dispersion models: critical Richardson number criterion, the Gaussian plume model, dispersion from a free turbulent gas jet, etc. Vulnerability and damage: general response function given intensity of effect and time of exposure, fires and dose-response of heat radiation exposure, blast wave strength from vapour cloud explosion, blast interaction with objects, damage caused by blast waves, blast effects on people, toxic effects, domino effects. Failure frequency estimation. Fault tree analysis (FTA): minimum cut sets. Risk presentation, acceptance criteria and perception (individual and group risk and their application to "external or public safety"; uncertainty in risk assessment). Risk reduction and control: safety management system (SMS), history of accident frequency, the crucial role of management and human factor, accident investigation. Risk reducing measures: rapid ranking and the risk matrix, layer of protection analysis (LOPA), safety instrumented systems (SIS), other protective measures, maintenance. Design methods and design safety reviews. The costs of accidents. The costs of safety: investment and profitability, cost optimisation, loss of life, the law of large numbers, limited scope - selection of alternatives. Use of CFD in risk assessment.
Safety Standards and Good Practices related to Hydrogen Applications
Trans-national nature of safety regulations, codes and standards (RCS). Key European safety legislation that applies to hydrogen: EU ATEX Directives (ATEX 100 (Product Directive) and ATEX 137 (User Directive)). Compliance of the EU ATEX Directives with the EMC Directive 89/336/EEC (modified by 92/31/EEC and 93/68/EEC (the CE Marking Directive)), the Machine Directive 98/37/EC, Pressure Vessel Directive 97/23/EC, and, the Low Voltage Directive 73/23/EEC. IEC Standard 61511: structure (Part 1: Framework, definitions, system, hardware and software requirements; Part 2: Guidelines in the application of IEC 61511-1; Part 3: Guidance for the determination of the required safety integrity levels), and, harmonisation (adoption of IEC 61511 as EN 61511, by the European standards body CENELEC; IEC 61511 not harmonised under any Directive of the European Commission), purpose, and, scope, structure, scope (basic functional safety standard applicable to all kinds of industry), and, paradigm (risk is defined as function of frequency (or likelihood) of the hazardous event and the event consequence severity; zero risk can never be reached, safety must be considered from the beginning, and, non-tolerable risks must be reduced (ALARP)). Examples of how codes, standards and guidance may be used to manage risk and comply with the law. Approval of new hydrogen technologies by RCS (HyApproval WP2: Handbook for hydrogen refuelling station approval). Standards: ISO TR 15916(E) - Basic considerations for the safety of hydrogen systems; ISO DIS16110-1 - Hydrogen generators using fuel processing technologies; ISO DIS/CD 16111 - Transportable gas storage devices - Hydrogen absorbed in reversible metal hydride; ISO DIS22734-1 - Hydrogen generators using water electrolysis process; ISO FDIS17268:2006(E) - Compressed hydrogen surface vehicle refuelling connection devices; ISO PDTS 20012 - Gaseous hydrogen - Fuelling stations.
TEACHING AND LEARNING METHODS
WebCT is the on-line learning environment employed to deliver this module. It's teaching and learning methods may, where applicable, include:
| · | On-line lectures. | |
| · | Communications Tools (on-line forums, mail tools, chat rooms, and a Whiteboard). | |
| · | Self-assessment Tools (student self-evaluation & timed on-line quizzes). | |
| · | Research Tools (external references & search facilities). | |
| · | Navigation Tools (page annotation, session resumption, searchable image archive, linked searchable glossary, indexing). |
ASSESSMENT
Two courseworks:
Each coursework comprises of three questions (33? marks each), each consisting of sub-questions. Questions may include short essays, tests of factual knowledge, problem solving, and opportunities for group work. The assessment is integrated into the working environment of students where possible.
The first coursework measures the student’s achievements in module learning outcomes K1, K2, K3, I1, I2, I3, P1, P2, T1, T2, T3, and T4.
The second coursework measures the student’s achievements in module learning outcomes K1, K4, K5, I1, I4, I5, P3, P4, P5, T1, T2, T3, and T4.
On-line self-assessment quizzes:
Each lecture is concluded by an on-line self-assessment quiz.
Each piece of coursework contributes 50% to the overall module mark. The online self-assessment quizzes are formative assessment but don't count towards the module mark. Successful completion of the quiz of a lecture enables access to a subsequent lecture.
100% coursework.
READING LIST
Required reading
Lectures of Module Applied Hydrogen Safety
The Biennial Report on Hydrogen Safety, European Network of Excellence HySafe (on-line: www.hysafe.org).
Further reading
The references listed in this section are pointers to literature cited by the required reading.
Ahmad, Z. (2006) Principles of corrosion engineering and corrosion control. Butterworth-Heinemann/IChemE Series. Amsterdam, Elsevier.
Alekseev, V.I., Kuznetsov, M.S., Yankin, Y.G. & Dorofeev S.B. (2001) Experimental study of flame acceleration and DDT under conditions of transverse venting. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Processes Industries, 14, pp.591-596.
Astbury, G.R. & Hawksworth, S.J. (2007) Spontaneous ignition of hydrogen leaks: a review of postulated mechanisms. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 32, pp.2178-2185.
Baker, W.E., Cox, P.A., Westine, P.S., Kulesz, J.J., & Strehlow, R.A. (1983) Explosion Hazards and Evaluation, volume 5 of Fundamental studies in engineering. New York, Elsevier.
Barthelemy, H. (2006) Compatibility of metallic materials with hydrogen. A lecture presented at the First European Summer School on Hydrogen Safety, 15-24 August 2006, Belfast, United Kingdom.
Casal, J. (2008) Evaluation of the effects and consequences of major accidents in industrial plants. Industrial Safety Series. Amsterdam, Elsevier.
Chelhaoui, S. & Serre Combe, P. (2006) Overview of European and international regulation and standardisation activities. Paper presented at the Sixteenth World Hydrogen Energy Conference,13-16 June 2006, Lyon, France. International Association for Hydrogen Energy.
Chen, C.J. & Rodi, W. (1980) Vertical turbulent buoyant jets: a review of experimental data, volume 4 of HMT - Science and Applications of Heat and Mass Transfer. Oxford, Pergamon Press.
Cheng, Z., Agranat, V.M., Tchouvelev, A.V., Houf, W. & Zhubrin, S.V. (2005) PRD hydrogen release and dispersion, a comparison of CFD results obtained from using ideal and real gas law properties. Paper presented at the International Conference on Hydrogen Safety, 8-10 September 2005, Pisa, Italy.
Committee for the Prevention of Disasters (2005) Methods for determining and processing probabilities, CPR 12E. Publication Series on Dangerous Substances. The Dutch Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations, The Hague, The Netherlands, second edition, 2005. Red Book, 2005 revision of the first edition published in 1997.
Committee for the Prevention of Disasters (1997) Methods for the calculation of physical effects due to releases of hazardous materials (liquids and gases), CPR14E. Publication Series on Dangerous Substances. The Dutch Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations, The Hague, The Netherlands, third edition, 2005. Yellow Book, 2005 revision of the third edition published in 1997.
Committee for the Prevention of Disasters (2005) Methods for the determination of possible damage to people and objects resulting from releases of hazardous materials, CPR 16E. Publication Series on Dangerous Substances. The Dutch Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations, The Hague, The Netherlands, first edition, 1992. Green Book, 2005 revision of the first edition published in 1992.
Committee for the Prevention of Disasters (2005) Guidelines for quantitative risk assessment, CPR 18E. Publication Series on Dangerous Substances. The Dutch Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations, The Hague, The Netherlands, first edition, 2005. Purple Book, 2005 revision of the first edition published in 1999.
Dorofeev, S.B. (2007) Evaluation of safety distances related to unconfined hydrogen explosions. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 32, pp.2118-2124.
European Commission. Council Directive 73/23/EEC of 19 February 1973 on the harmonization of the laws of member states relating to electrical equipment designed for use within certain voltage limits. Official Journal of the European Union, L 77, 26.3.1973:29-38, 1973.
European Commission. Council Directive 89/336/EEC of 3 May 1989 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States concerning electromagnetic compatibility. Official Journal of the European Union, L 139, 23.5.1989:19-26, 1989.
European Commission. Directive 94/9/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 March 1994 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States concerning equipment and protective systems intended for use in potentially explosive atmospheres. Official Journal of the European Union, L 100, 19.4.1994:1-33, 1994. EU ATEX 100.
European Commission. Directive 98/37/ec of the European Parliament and of the Council of 22 June 1998 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to machinery. Official Journal of the European Union, L 207, 12.08.1998:1-48, 1998.
European Commission. Directive 1999/92/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 1999 on minimum requirements for improving the safety and health protection of workers potentially at risk from explosive atmospheres (15th individual Directive within the meaning of Article 16(1) of Directive 89/391/EEC). Official Journal of the European Union, L 23, 28.1.2000:57-68, 2000. EU ATEX 137.
European Industrial Gases Association. Gaseous hydrogen stations. Technical Report IGC Doc 15/06/E, EIGA, Brussels, 2006. Revision of Doc 15/96 and Doc 15/05.
European Industrial Gases Association. Determination of safety distances. Technical Report IGC Doc 75/01/E/rev, EIGA, Brussels, 2001.
European Industrial Gases Association. Determination of safety distances. Technical Report IGC Doc 75/01/E/rev, EIGA, Brussels, 2007. Revision of Doc 75/01/rev.
European Industrial Gases Association. Hydrogen cylinders and transport vessels. Technical Report IGC Doc IGC Doc 100/03/E, EIGA, Brussels, 2003. Revision of TN 26/81.
HyApproval WP2 (2007). Handbook for hydrogen refuelling station approval. Technical Report Deliverable 2.2, Version 2.0, HyApproval Consortium, www.hyapproval.org, December 2007. Prepared under under FP6 Priority 1.6, Contract Number SES6 - 019813.
International Standardization Organization (ISO), ISO TR 15916(E). Basic considerations for the safety of hydrogen systems. First Edition. Reference number ISO TR 15916:2004(E). The International Organization for Standardization, 2004. International Standard, Prepared by Technical Committee ISO/TC 197 Hydrogen Technologies.
International Standardization Organization (ISO), ISO DIS16110-1. Hydrogen generators using fuel processing technologies - Part 1: Safety. The International Organization for Standardization, 2007. International Standard, Prepared by Technical Committee ISO/TC 197 Hydrogen Technologies.
International Standardization Organization (ISO), ISO DIS/CD 16111. Transportable gas storage devices - Hydrogen absorbed in reversible metal hydride. The International Organization for Standardization, 2005. Draft International Standard, Prepared by Technical Committee ISO/TC 197 Hydrogen Technologies.
International Standardization Organization (ISO), ISO DIS22734-1. Hydrogen generators using water electrolysis process - Part 1: Industrial and commercial applications. The International Organization for Standardization, 2005. Draft International Standard, Prepared by Technical Committee ISO/TC 197 Hydrogen Technologies.
International Standardization Organization (ISO), ISO FDIS17268:2006(E). Compressed hydrogen surface vehicle refuelling connection devices. The International Organization for Standardization, 2006. Draft International Standard, Prepared by Technical Committee ISO/TC 197 Hydrogen Technologies.
International Standardization Organization (ISO), ISO PDTS 20012. Gaseous hydrogen - Fuelling stations. The International Organization for Standardization, 2007. Draft International Standard, Prepared by Technical Committee ISO/TC 197 Hydrogen Technologies.
Kuo, K.K. (2005) Principles of Combustion. 2nd edition. New York, John Wiley & Sons.
Lee, J.H.S. (2008) The Detonation Phenomenon. New York, Cambridge University Press.
Lees F.P. (1996) Loss Prevention in the Process Industry, volumes 1, 2 & 3. 2nd edition. London, Butterworth.
Lewis, B. & von Elbe, G. (1987) Combustion, Flames and Explosions of Gases. 3rd edition. Academic Press.
Molkov, V.V., Dobashi, R., Suzuki, M. & Hirano, T. (2000) Venting of deflagrations: Hydrocarbon-air and hydrogen-air systems. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 13, pp.397-409.
Molkov, V.V. (2001) Unified correlations for vent sizing of enclosures against gaseous deflagrations at atmospheric and elevated pressures. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industries, 14, pp.567-574.
NASA. Safety Standard for Hydrogen and Hydrogen Systems (1997). Guidelines for hydrogen system design, materials selection, operations, storage, and transportation. Technical Report NSS 1740.16. Washington, Office of Safety and Mission Assurance.
Newsholme, G (2007). Hydrogen Safety and Regulation. A lecture contributed to Module Applied Hydrogen Safety of the Postgraduate Certificate in Hydrogen Safety Engineering. Bootle, United Kingdom, The Health and Safety Executive.
NFPA 50A (1999). Standard for gaseous hydrogen systems at consumer sites. 1999 edition. Quincy, MA, United States of America, National Fire Protection Association.
NFPA 55 (1998). Standard for the storage, use, and handling of compressed and liquefied gases in portable cylinders. 1998 edition. Quincy, MA, United States of America, National Fire Protection Association.
NFPA 55 (2005) Standard for the storage, use, and handling of compressed and liquefied gases in portable cylinders. 2005 edition. Quincy, MA, United States of America, National Fire Protection Association.
NFPA 853 (2003) Standard for the installation of stationary fuel cell power plants, 2003 edition. Quincy, MA, United States of America, National Fire Protection Association.
Ngo, T., Mendis, P., Gupta, A. & Ramsay, J. (2007) Blast loading and blast effects on structures - An overview. Electronic Journal of Structural Engineering, 7, pp.76-91. Special Issue: Loading on Structures.
Pasman, H.J. (2006) The challenge of risk control in a hydrogen based economy. A lecture presented at the First European Summer School on Hydrogen Safety, 15-24 August 2006, Belfast, United Kingdom.
Schefer, R.W., Houf, W.G., San Marchi, C., Chernicoff, W.P. & Englom, L. (2006) Characterization of leaks from compressed hydrogen dispensing systems and related components. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 31, pp.1247-1260.
Shepherd, J.E. (2006) Elastic and plastic structural response of tubes to deflagration-to-detonation transition. Technical Report Explosion Dynamics Laboratory Report FM2006-00x, Graduate Aeronautical Laboratries, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, July 2006. Presented at the First European Summer School on Hydrogen Safety, 15-24 August 2006, Belfast, United Kingdom.
Shepherd, J.E. (2006) Structural response of piping to internal gas detonation. In: Proceedings of the ASME Pressure Vessels and Piping Division Conference, July 23-27, 2006, Vancouver BC, Canada. PVP2006-ICPVT-11-93670.
Tang, M.J. & Baker, Q.A. (1999) A new set of blast curves from vapor cloud explosion. Process Safety Progress, 18, pp.235-240.
Tang, M.J. & Baker, Q.A. (2000) Comparison of blast curves from vapor cloud explosions. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Processes Industries, 13, pp.433-438.
Thomas, G.O. (2002) The response of pipes and supports to internal pressure loads generated by gaseous detonations. Journal of Pressure Vessel Technology, Transactions of the ASME, 124, pp.66-73.
Venetsanos, A.G. & Bartzis, J.G. (2007) CFD modeling of large-scale LH2 spills in open environment. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 32, pp.2171-2177.
Venetsanos, A.G., Baraldi, D., Adams, P., Heggem, P.S. & Wilkening, H. (2008) CFD modelling of hydrogen release, dispersion and combustion for automotive scenarios. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Processes Industries, 21, pp.162-184.
Wurster, R. (2006) HyApproval - Handbook for approval of hydrogen refuelling stations - Safe and harmonised implementation of hydrogen refuelling stations on a global scale. A lecture presented at the First European Summer School on Hydrogen Safety, 15-24 August 2006, Belfast, United Kingdom.
Williams, F.A. (1985) Combustion Theory: the fundamental theory of chemically reacting flow systems. 2nd edition. Combustion Science and Engineering Series. Menlo Park, California, The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company.
SUMMARY DESCRIPTION
This module is a follow-up to Principles of Hydrogen Safety. The regulatory framework and standards applicable to hydrogen technologies are reviewed. The principles of hydrogen safety are applied to handling hydrogen releases/dispersion, preventing hydrogen ignition, and, pressure effects of hydrogen explosions. Structural response, fragmentation and missile effects of hydrogen explosions, and, the compatibility of metallic materials in application areas involving the production, storage, transportation, and utilisation of hydrogen are also addressed.