MODULE DESCRIPTION PRINCIPLES OF HYDROGEN SAFETY
| MODULE TITLE: | Principles of Hydrogen Safety | |
| MODULE CODE: | ENE821J1X | |
| YEAR OF REVISION: | 2008/09 | |
| MODULE LEVEL: | M | |
| CREDIT POINTS: | 30 | |
| MODULE STATUS: | Compulsory | |
| SEMESTER: | 1 | |
| LOCATION: | Campus One | |
| E-LEARNING: | Fully on-line | |
| PREREQUISITE(S): | None | |
| CO-REQUISITE(S): | None | |
| MODULE CO-ORDINATOR: | Dr Dahoe, A.E. | |
| TEACHING STAFF: | Dr Dahoe, A.E.; Dr Makarov, D.V. | |
| HOURS: | On-line learning (on-line lectures, on-line discussions by forum and email) | 72 hrs |
| Directed reading (including consultation of electronic library resources) | 108 hrs | |
| Independent study time (including coursework assignment preparation and on-line quizzes at the end of each lecture) | 120 hrs | |
| TOTAL EFFORT HOURS: | 300 hrs | |
| ACADEMIC SUBJECT: | ENE | |
| RATIONALE This module seeks to develop in students the ability to integrate fundamental knowledge and engineering approaches from a variety of disciplines (thermodynamics, heat and mass transfer, fluid dynamics, solid mechanics, combustion) to understand the origin and phenomenology of hydrogen safety problems. |
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AIMS
| · | Provide the student with an awareness of current problems (accidental releases, effects of fires and explosions, etc.) in application areas of the hydrogen economy (production, transportation, storage, utilisation, etc.). | |
| · | Provide the student with an understanding of theories, methodologies and paradigms that form the principles of hydrogen safety so that they may undertake his/her own research or advanced scholarship. | |
| · | Develop in the student a capability for independent learning to expand his/her knowledge in the principles of hydrogen safety engineering, and to understand how the boundaries of knowledge in this field are advanced through research. | |
| · | Provide the student with a conceptual understanding of the principles of hydrogen safety engineering so that he/she will be able to critically evaluate and use research information on accidental hydrogen releases, fires and explosions, material compatibility, etc. for the provision of hydrogen safety. | |
| · | Develop in the student the quality of originality in the application the principles of hydrogen safety engineering, together with a practical understanding of how established techniques of research and enquiry are used to create and interpret knowledge in specialist areas of hydrogen safety. | |
| · | Develop in the student the ability to deal with complex hydrogen safety engineering issues involving accidental hydrogen releases and dispersion, fires and explosions, material compatibility, etc. by applying the principles of hydrogen safety. |
LEARNING OUTCOMES
Successful students will be able to:
KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING
| K1 | explain the vulnerability of the transition towards a hydrogen economy to safety issues | |
| K2 | describe the thermodynamics and kinetics of the hydrogen-air combustion reaction | |
| K3 | describe the various releases of compressed gaseous and liquefied hydrogen | |
| K4 | explain the different modes of turbulent hydrogen combustion: premixed, non-premixed, and partially premixed | |
| K5 | point out the features of the multi-dimensional detonation wave structure and identify detonation cell size as a design parameter for safety |
INTELLECTUAL QUALITIES
| I1 | assess appropriate equations of state to explain the non-ideal pressure-temperature-density behaviour of gaseous hydrogen | |
| I2 | analyse the hydrogen combustion reaction in air and its application to deflagration and detonation waves | |
| I3 | appraise the phenomenology of hydrogen jet releases and liquefied hydrogen spills | |
| I4 | appraise the application of turbulent combustion modelling to hydrogen explosions |
PROFESSIONAL/PRACTICAL SKILLS
| P1 | estimate the hydrogen concentration after accidental releases and set back distances | |
| P2 | predict jet fire parameters for hydrogen fires while taking thermal effects on people and construction elements, and, damage criteria for buildings, vehicles and people into account | |
| P3 | calculate pressure effects of hydrogen explosions, determine safety distances to protect people and structures against pressure effects, and, design mitigation techniques | |
| P4 | demonstrate expertise in assessing possible measures for reducing the potential of detonation wave generation (inhibition of flames, venting in the early stages of an explosion, quenching of the flame-shock complex, detonation flame arresters) | |
| P5 | evaluate CFD calculations of hydrogen safety problems involving jet releases of compressed hydrogen gas, liquid hydrogen spills, and confined/unconfined hydrogen deflagrations |
TRANSFERABLE SKILLS
| T1 | display mastery in analysing complex hydrogen safety problems both systematically and creatively, by integrating fundamental knowledge and engineering approaches from a variety of disciplines, and communicate their conclusions to specialist and non-specialist audiences | |
| T2 | demonstrate self-direction and originality in tackling and solving hydrogen safety problems at a professional or equivalent level | |
| T3 | undertake advanced scholarship in the principles of hydrogen safety |
CONTENT
Environmental, Societal and Safety Aspects of the Hydrogen Economy
Economical and ecological issues. Global energy consumption. Energy security: conservation, improved oil recovery, heavy oil and oil sands, gas-to-liquids (GTL), liquid fuels from coal, liquid fuels from oil shale, liquid fuels from biomass, fuel switching to electricity, other fuel switching, hydrogen. Environmental impact. The hydrogen economy: timing of the hydrogen transition. Hydrogen as an energy carrier. Where will hydrogen come from? Hydrogen production and end-use. Hydrogen storage, distribution and infrastructure. Hydrogen safety and regulatory issues: safety issues, public acceptance and safety, regulatory issues. Approval process: the example of hydrogen road vehicles, the case of hydrogen refuelling stations. Introduction to modern safety philosophy: the modern risk-based approach to the management and regulation of safety; an introduction to the important components of risk, i.e. hazards, likelihood, consequence and hazardous event; how an understanding of these provides a basis for reducing risk and increasing safety. A brief overview of a modern structured approach to managing the risk from hydrogen. The chain: potential, trigger of cause-consequences, exposed vulnerable elements and the design actions for safety both technical and organisational in inherent safety, prevention, containment etc. An introduction to risk assessment and the goal-setting basis of modern legislation.
Hydrogen Properties
Atomic structure and safety related consequences. Safety related physical properties. The states of matter of hydrogen: gas, liquid, solid and other states of matter; phase transitions and the phase diagram of a pure substance; comparison between the phase-diagram of hydrogen and that of other substances. Boiling point and melting point of hydrogen: second lowest boiling and melting point of all substances, consequences for storage and transportation, Hazards arising from the low boiling point. Equations of state and the non-ideal pressure-temperature-volume behaviour of hydrogen. Density of hydrogen. Buoyancy of gaseous and liquid hydrogen. Correlations for the density of hydrogen. Properties connected to fire and explosion hazards. Phenomenology of fires, deflagrations and detonations. Health hazard properties.
Hydrogen Thermochemistry
Stochiometry. Equivalence ratio.
Combustion reaction of hydrogen in air: stoichiometric equation.
Chemical equilibrium: equilibrium constants, equilibrium composition calculations.
Heat effects: heat of reaction, equilibrium composition with heat effects present.
Adiabatic flame temperature:
constant pressure and constant volume adiabatic flame temperature,
the frozen flame temperature and flame temperature with product dissociation,
calculation of the adiabatic flame temperature by the element potential method.
Chemical kinetics: global versus elementary reactions, relationship between reaction
rate and chemical species concentration, the three-parameter
Arrhenius form to describe the reaction-rate constant.
Reaction mechanisms: forward elementary
reactions, backward elementary reactions, the chemical equilibrium
constant as the ratio between the forward and backward elementary
reaction rates. Detailed kinetic schemes for hydrogen oxidation,
reduced mechanisms. Chain branching: the concept of a chain carrier.
Removal of chain carriers by a three-body collision with a third
body. The crossover temperature. Falloff. The fall-off reaction
rate. Chaperon efficiencies. Validation of kinetic mechanisms from
critically-reviewed experiments. Application of thermochemistry in
hydrogen safety: the three explosion limits in the flammability
diagram; dependence of explosion limits of hydrogen-oxygen systems
on vessel shape, nature of the surface, added inert gases;
spontaneous ignition of hydrogen leaks; ignition by hot surfaces;
catalytic recombiners; initial and boundary conditions for
self-sustained detonation; prediction of detonation limits.
Introduction to CFD Simulations of Hydrogen Accidents
The role of modeling and simulations for the provision of hydrogen safety. Overview of governing equations (Reynolds and Favre decomposition, filtering) and turbulence concepts (closure problem, Reynolds stresses, Boussinesq hypothesis, subgrid-scale stresses) and modeling (Prandtl mixing length model, the k-epsilon model, Reynolds stress models, LES models). The equations of change for turbulent reacting flows and closure models. Large Eddy Simulation: mass weighted Favre averaging and the filtered balance equations for (non)-reacting flows, sub-grid scale models. Brief overview of applications to practical hydrogen safety provision (garages, parking places, tunnels, re-fuelling stations, liquefied hydrogen storage, fuel-cell storage, bursts of high-pressure vehicle tanks, pressure-release devices, post-release mitigation, accidental combustion, stand-off distances).
Hydrogen Releases and Mixing
Molecular and turbulent mixing. Jet releases. Sonic and supersonic jet releases. Joule-Thompson inversion. Governing equations for jets. Laminar jets, plane and round jets, impinging jets. Turbulent jets: transition to turbulence, morphology of jet establishment. Scaling parameters for under-expanded supersonic jets. Buoyant jet in stably stratified surroundings: formation of a buoyant ceiling layer in an enclosure; steady state plume, puff and starting plume; plume formation distance and concentration profiles. Ventilation effects on the buoyant plume in an enclosure. Examples of CFD calculations for hydrogen dispersion in simple and complex enclosures: hydrogen releases in rectangular enclosures representative of residential garages; estimation of the hydrogen concentration during accidents in nuclear power plants (hydrogen generation and release during the Three Mile Island accident; simulation of the three dimensional behavior of a hydrogen-steam mixture within a subdivided containment volume following hydrogen generation during a severe accident in nuclear power plants). Boil off phenomenon. Cryogenic hydrogen spills: cryogenic spills and pool spreading; boiling modes, pool boiling, crisis of boiling, the Leidenfrost phenomenon, forced convection boiling, sub-cooled boiling, saturated boiling. Effect of boundary layer in atmosphere on dynamics of hydrogen cloud formation. Overview of experimental data and modelling of gaseous and liquefied hydrogen releases.
Premixed Combustion of Hydrogen-Air Mixtures
Laminar premixed flames: phenomenology, structure of the reaction zone, laminar burning velocity and laminar flame thickness. Stabilisation of laminar premixed flames on burners. Flash-back, blow-off and flame quenching. Effect of equivalence ratio, diluent concentration, pressure and temperature on the laminar burning velocity. Cellular flame structure and flame wrinkling. Effect of flame stretch and flame curvature on the laminar burning velocity. Turbulence generated by flame front itself. Turbulent premixed flames: phenomenology, turbulent flame brush, turbulent burning velocity and turbulent flame thickness. Turbulence scales and the interaction between turbulence and flames. The Borghi-diagram and interpretation of combustion regimes. The closure problem in turbulent premixed combustion. Flamelet models and flame surface density models. Flame extinction by turbulence.
Diffusion and Partially Premixed Combustion of Hydrogen in Air
Laminar diffusion flames: passive scalars, mixture fraction, flame structure in the mixture fraction space, state relationships, the Burke-Schumann flame structure, Laminar jet flames in a uniform flow field and flame length. Turbulent diffusion flames: relationship between flame height and fuel flow rate, stable lifted flames and blow-out phenomenon, dependence of flame length and shape on jet direction, correlation between flame length and rate of heat release. Partially premixed combustion: triple flames, combustion of an inhomogeneous mixture in a closed vessel and pressure build up. Prediction of jet fire parameters: temperature, visibility, flame length and flame shape, radiation. Pool fire characteristics. Fireball characteristics. Case studies and analysis of experimental data on thermal effects of hydrogen fires. Thermal effects on people and construction elements: tolerance limits, fire resistance rating. Damage criteria for buildings, vehicles and people. Safety distances for hydrogen fires.
Deflagrations and their mitigation
Phenomenology of deflagration. Explosion severity parameters: relationship between explosion severity parameters and flame propagation parameters, pressure and temperature dependence of explosion severity parameters, effect of obstacles on flame propagation, flame acceleration and pressure build up. Confined deflagrations: dynamics of flame front propagation, flame induced flow, flame instabilities and flame wrinkling, prediction of pressure build-up in closed space, the Mache effect. Unconfined large-scale deflagration dynamics: mechanisms of flame propagation acceleration and the role of instabilities, positive and negative phases of pressure dynamics, pressure wave decay in the atmosphere. Overview of hydrogen deflagration mitigation techniques : pressure containment, deflagration venting, suppressant barriers, suppressant injections, fast-acting valves, flame front diverters, inherently safe design, inertisation, deflagration flame arresters, quenching diameter, dependence of the quenching diameter on pressure and application in deflagration flame arresters, quenching on the wall.
Detonations
Phenomenology of detonation. The Hugoniot curve: the Hugoniot relations, the Rankine-Hugoniot relation, the Rankine-Hugoniot diagram, the Rayleigh-line relation, the Chapman-Jouget points, the Chapman-Jouget detonation wave velocity. The detonation wave structure: the Zeldovich-von Neumann-Doring theory of detonation (one-dimensional wave structure), three-dimensional detonation wave structure. Detonation limits: confined and unconfined detonation limits, comparison between different fuels, effect of a problem scale. Detonation cell size: dependence on composition, temperature and pressure, comparison between hydrogen and hydrocarbon fuels, relationship between detonation initiation energy and detonation cell size, comparison between hydrogen, other fuels, and explosives, critical tube diameter for the onset of detonation. Deflagration to detonation transition (DDT): phenomenology of flame acceleration and DDT; effect of chemical composition, pressure, temperature, geometry, and physical size of the system. Autoignition delay times for hydrogen-air mixtures. Possible measures for reducing the potential of detonation wave generation: inhibition of flames, venting in the early stages of an explosion, quenching of the flame-shock complex, detonation flame arresters.
TEACHING AND LEARNING METHODS
WebCT is the on-line learning environment employed to deliver this module. It's teaching and learning methods may, where applicable, include:
| · | On-line lectures. | |
| · | Communications Tools (on-line forums, mail tools, chat rooms, and a Whiteboard). | |
| · | Self-assessment Tools (student self-evaluation & timed on-line quizzes). | |
| · | Research Tools (external references & search facilities). | |
| · | Navigation Tools (page annotation, session resumption, searchable image archive, linked searchable glossary, indexing). |
ASSESSMENT
Two courseworks:
Each coursework comprises of three questions (33? marks each), each consisting of sub-questions. Questions may include short essays, tests of factual knowledge, problem solving, and opportunities for group work. The assessment is integrated into the working environment of students where possible.
The first coursework measures the student's achievements in module learning outcomes K1, K2, K3, I1, I2, I3, P1, P5, T1, T2, and T3.
The second coursework measures the student's achievements in module learning outcomes K4, K5, I4, P2, P3, P4, P5, T1, T2, and T3.
On-line self-assessment quizzes:
Each lecture is concluded by an on-line self-assessment quiz.
Each piece of coursework contributes 50% to the overall module mark. The online self-assessment quizzes are formative assessment but don't count towards the module mark. Successful completion of the quiz of a lecture enables access to a subsequent lecture.
100% coursework.
READING LIST
Required reading
Lectures of Module Principles of Hydrogen Safety
The Biennial Report on Hydrogen Safety, European Network of Excellence HySafe (on-line: www.hysafe.org).
Further reading
The references listed in this section are pointers to literature cited by the required reading.
Aceves, S.M., Berry, G.D. & Rambach, G.D. (1998) Insulated pressure vessels for hydrogen storage on vehicles. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 23, pp.583-591.
Aris, R. (1989) Vectors, Tensors, and the Basic Equations of Fluid Mechanics. New York, Dover Publications.
Atkins, P.W. & de Paula, J. (2006) Physical Chemistry. 8th edition. Oxford, Oxford University Press.
Baker, W.E., Cox, P.A., Westine, P.S., Kulesz, J.J., & Strehlow, R.A. (1983) Explosion Hazards and Evaluation, volume 5 of Fundamental studies in engineering. New York, Elsevier.
Batchelor, G.K. (1994) An introduction to fluid dynamics. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
Bird, R.B., Stewart, W.E., & Lightfoot E.N. (2002) Transport phenomena. 2nd edition. New York, Wiley.
Bradley, D. & Mitcheson, A. (1976) Mathematical solutions for explosions in spherical vessels. Combustion and Flame, 26, pp.201-217.
Bradley D. & Mitcheson A. (1978) The venting of gaseous explosions in spherical vessels. I - Theory. Combustion and Flame, 32, pp.221-236.
Bradley, D. & Mitcheson, A. (1978) The venting of gaseous explosions in spherical vessels. II - Theory and experiment. Combustion and Flame, 32, pp.237-255.
Bradley, D. (1992) How fast can we burn? In: Proceedings of the Twenty-Fourth Symposium (International) on Combustion. Pittsburgh, The Combustion Institute. pp.247-262.
Bradley, D., Lawes, M., Scott, M.J., & Mushi, E.M.J. (1994) Afterburning in spherical premixed turbulent explosions. Combustion and Flame, 99, pp.581-590.
Bradley, D. (1999) Instabilities and flame speeds in large-scale premixed gaseous explosions. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, Series A, 357, pp.3567-3581.
Bradley, D., Sheppard, C.G.W., Woolley, R., Greenhalgh, D.A., & Lockett, R.D. (2000) The development and structure of flame instabilities and cellularity at low Markstein numbers in explosions. Combustion and Flame, 122, pp.195-209.
Bradley D. Burning rates in gaseous explosions of hydrogen-air. A lecture presented at the First European Summer School on Hydrogen Safety, 15-24 August 2006.
Bradley, D., Lawes, M., Liu, K., Verhelst, S., & Woolley, R. (2007) Laminar burning velocities of lean hydrogen-air mixtures at pressures up to 1.0 MPa. Combustion and Flame, 149, pp.162-172.
Breitung, W., Chan, C.K., Dorofeev, S.B., Eder, A., Gelfand, B.E., Heitsch, M., Klein, R., Malliakos, A., Shepherd, J.E., Studer, E. & Thibault P. (2000) Flame acceleration and deflagration to detonation transition in nuclear safety. State-of-the-art report by a group of experts. August 2000. OECD Nuclear Energy Agency.
Bulent Yuceil, K. & Volkan Otugen, M. (2002) Scaling parameters for underexpanded supersonic jets. Physics of Fluids, 14. pp.4206-4215.
Cant R.S. and Mastorakos E. (2008) An introduction to turbulent reacting flows. London, Imperial College Press.
Chen, C.J. & Rodi W. (1980) Vertical turbulent buoyant jets: a review of experimental data, volume 4 of HMT - Science and Applications of Heat and Mass Transfer. Oxford, Pergamon Press.
Ciccarelli, G. (2002) Critical tube measurements at elevated initial mixture temperatures. Combustion Science and Technology, 174, pp.173-183.
Dorofeev, S.B. (1996) Blast effect of confined and unconfined explosions. In: Sturtevant, B., Shepherd, J., and Hornung, H. (eds.) Shock Waves, Proceedings of the 20th ISSW, 1996, volume 1, Singapore. World Scientific Publishing Co. pp.77-86.
Dorofeev, S.B., Sidorov, V.P., & Dvoinishnikov, A.E. (1996) Blast parameters from unconfined gaseous detonations. In Sturtevant, B., Shepherd, J., and Hornung, H. (eds.) Shock Waves, Proceedings of the 20th ISSW, 1996, volume 1, Singapore. World Scientific Publishing Co. pp.673-678.
Dorofeev S. B., Kuznetsov M. S., Alekseev V. I., Efimenko A.A. & Breitung W. (2001) Evaluation of limits for effective flame acceleration in hydrogen mixtures. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Processes Industries, 14, pp.583-589.
Dorofeev, S.B. (2007) Evaluation of safety distances related to unconfined hydrogen explosions. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 32, pp.2118-2124.
Drysdale, D. (1999) An Introduction to Fire Dynamics. Chichester, John Wiley & Sons.
Fickett, K.K. & Davis, W.C. (2001) Detonation: theory and experiment. New York, Dover.
Griffiths, J.F. & Barnard, J.A. (1995) Flame and Combustion. 3rd edition. London, Chapman & Hall.
Grossel, S.S. (2007) Deflagration and detonation flame arresters. New York, Center for Chemical Process Safety of the American Institute of Chemical Engineers.
Houf, W. & Schefer, R. (2007) Predicting radiative heat fluxes and flammability envelopes from unintended releases of hydrogen. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 32, pp.136-141.
Incropera, F.P., De Witt, D.P., Bergman, T.L. & Lavine, A.S. (2006) Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer. 6th edition. New York, John Wiley & Sons.
Jordan, T. (2006) Hydrogen as an energy carrier. A lecture presented at the First European Summer School on Hydrogen Safety, 15-24 August 2006, Belfast, United Kingdom.
Kreith, F. & Bohn, M.S. (2001) Principles of heat transfer. 6th edition. Pacific Grove, California, Brooks/Cole Publishers.
Kundu, K.P. & Cohen, I.M. (2004) Fluid Mechanics. 3rd edition. Amsterdam, Elsevier Academic Press.
Kuo, K.K. (2005) Principles of Combustion. 2nd edition. New York, John Wiley & Sons.
Lewis, B. & von Elbe, G. (1987) Combustion, Flames and Explosions of Gases. 3rd edition. Academic Press.
Law, C.K. (2006) Combustion Physics. New York, Cambridge University Press.
Law, C.K. (2006) Propagation, structure, and limit phenomena of laminar flames at elevated pressures. Combustion Science and Technology, 178, pp.335-360.
Lee, J.H.S. & Berman, M. (1997) Hydrogen combustion and its application to nuclear reactor safety. In: Greene, G.A., Hartnett, J.P., Irvine Jr., T.F. & Cho, Y.I. (eds.), Heat Transfer in Nuclear Reactor Safety, volume 29 of Advances in Heat Transfer, chapter 2. New York, Academic Press. pp.59-123.
Lee, J.H.S. (2008) The Detonation Phenomenon. New York, Cambridge University Press.
Lighthill, M.J. (1978) Waves in fluids. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press.
Molkov, V.V., Makarov, D. & Grigorash A. (2004) Cellular structure of explosion flames: modelling and large-eddy simulation. Combustion Science and Technology, 176, pp.851-865.
Molkov, V., Makarov, D. & Schneider, H. (2006) LES modelling of an unconfined large-scale hydrogen-air deflagration. Journal of Physics D: Applied Physics, 39, pp.4366-4376.
Newsholme G. (2007) The management of risk. A lecture contributed to Module Principles of Hydrogen Safety of the Postgraduate Certificate in Hydrogen Safety Engineering. Bootle, United Kingdom, The Health and Safety Executive,.
Ng H.D., Ju Y., and Lee J.H.S. Assessment of detonation hazards in high-pressure hydrogen storage from chemical sensitivity analysis. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 32:93-99, 2007.
Poinsot, T. & Veynante, D. (2005) Theoretical and numerical combustion. 2nd edition. Philadelphia, Edwards.
Pope, S.B. (2000) Turbulent flows. Cambridge, United Kingdom, Cambridge University Press.
Quintiere, J.G. (2006) Fundamentals Of Fire Phenomena. Chichester, John Wiley & Sons.
Schefer, R.W., Houf, W.G., San Marchi, C., Chernicoff, W.P. & Englom, L. (2006) Characterization of leaks from compressed hydrogen dispensing systems and related components. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 31, pp.1247-1260.
Schlichting, H. (1968) Boundary-layer theory. 6th edition. Trans. Kestin J. McGraw-Hill Series in Mechanical Engineering. New York, McGraw-Hill.
Smith, J.M., Van Ness, H.C. & Abbott, M.M. (2001) Introduction to Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics. 6th edition. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Sonntag, R.E., Borgnakke, C. & van Wylen, G.J. (2003) Fundamentals of Thermodynamics. 6th edition. New York, John Wiley & Sons 2003.
Stamps, D.W., Slezak, S.E., & Tiezen, S.R. (2006) Observations of the cellular structure of fuel-air detonations. Combustion and Flame, 144, pp.289-298.
Swain, M.R. & Swain, M.N. (1996) Passive ventilation systems for the safe use of hydrogen. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 21, pp823-835.
Swain, M.R., Filoso, P., Grilliot, E.S. & Swain, M.N. (2003) Hydrogen leakage into simple geometric enclosures. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 28, pp.229-248.
Tang, M.J. & Baker, Q.A. (1999) A new set of blast curves from vapor cloud explosion. Process Safety Progress, 18, pp.235-240.
Tang, M.J. & Baker, Q.A. (2000) Comparison of blast curves from vapor cloud explosions. Journal of Loss Prevention in the Processes Industries, 13, pp.433-438.
Teodorczyk, A. (2006) Fast deflagrations, deflagration to detonation transition (DDT) and direct detonation in hydrogen-air mixtures. A lecture presented at the First European Summer School on Hydrogen Safety, 15-24 August 2006, Belfast, United Kingdom.
Tse, S.D., Zhu, D.L. & Law, C.K. (2000) Morphology and burning rates of expanding spherical flames in H2/O2/inert mixtures up to 60 atmospheres. In: Proceedings of the Twenty-Eighth Symposium (International) on Combustion. Pittsburgh, The Combustion Institute. pp.1793-1800.
Verfondern, K. & Dienhart B. (1997) Experimental and theoretical investigation of hydrogen pool spreading and vaporization. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 22, pp.649-660.
Verfondern, K. & Dienhart, B. (2007) Pool spreading and vaporization of liquid hydrogen. International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 32, pp.256-267.
Venetsanos, A.G., Huld, T., Adams, P., & Bartzis, J.G. (2003) Source, dispersion and combustion modelling of an accidental release of hydrogen in an urban environment. Journal of Hazardous Materials, A105, pp.1-25.
Warnatz, J., Maas, U., & Dibble, R.W. (2005) Combustion: Physical and Chemical Fundamentals, Modeling and Simulation, Experiments, Pollutant Formation. 3rd edition. New York, Springer.
Wen, J.X. (2006) Hydrogen fires. A lecture presented at the First European Summer School on Hydrogen Safety, 15-24 August 2006, Belfast, United Kingdom.
Williams, F.A. (1985) Combustion Theory: the fundamental theory of chemically reacting flow systems. 2nd edition. Combustion Science and Engineering Series. Menlo Park, California, The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company.
Williams, F.A. (2006) Reduced chemistry for hydrogen combustion and detonation. A lecture presented at the First European Summer School on Hydrogen Safety, 15-24 August 2006, Belfast, United Kingdom.
Williams, F.A. (2008) New developments in the understanding of hydrogen laminar burning velocities and spontaneous ignition. A lecture presented at the Third European Summer School on Hydrogen Safety, 21-31 July 2008, Belfast, United Kingdom.
Zalosh, R. (2006) Hydrogen mixing in large enclosures. A lecture presented at the First European Summer School on Hydrogen Safety, 15-24 August 2006, Belfast, United Kingdom.
SUMMARY DESCRIPTION
This module combines a variety of disciplines (thermodynamics, heat and mass transfer, fluid dynamics, solid mechanics, combustion) into an engineering framework called Principles of Hydrogen Safety. Insight into these principles is developed to enable the student to understand the origin and phenomenology of hydrogen safety problems involving unscheduled releases/dispersion, including gaseous leaks and cryogenic spills, thermal effects of hydrogen fires, pressure effects of deflagrations and detonations.